BOOK REPORT Stucture And Grammar 4

CHAPTER ONE
Overview of Verb Tenses

THE SIMPL PRESENT TENSES (P-2)

·         Simple Present: In general, it expresses events that exist always, usually, habitually; example: Tom watches television every day.

·         Simple Past: At one particular time in the past; example: Tom watched television yesterday.

·         Simple future: at one particular time in the future; example: Tom will watch television tonight.

The Progressive Tenses (P-3)

·         Form: be + ing

·         It gives the idea that an action in progress during a particular time.

·         Example: Tom will be sleeping when we arrive.

The Perfect Tenses (P-4)

·         Form: have + past participle

·         It gives idea that a thing happen before another time or event.

·         Example: Tom has already eaten.

The Perfect Progressive Tenses (P-5)

·         It gives the idea that one event is in progress immediately before, up to, until another time or event.

·         Form= have + been + ing

·         Example: Tom has been studying for two hours.

Chapter 02
Present Past, Simple and Progressive

Simple Present

·         It says that something true in the past, present and future. Example: The world is round. (p-13)

·         It expresses habitually or activities.

Present Progressive

·         It expresses an activity is a progress at the moment of speaking.

·         It also expresses something generally in progress this week, month or year. Example: I’m taking course this semester. (P-13)

Stative Verbs

·         They describes condition or situation that exist. They are not used in progressive.

·         Example: Yum! This food tastes good. (P-15)

Pronunciation of –ed ending.

·         After unvoiced consonant: /t/                         example: looked, finished.

·         After voiced consonant: /d/                example: smelled, robbed.

·         After /t/ and /d/ sound: /Id/                 example: decided, invited.

Chapter 03
Perfect and Perfect Progressive Tenses

Present Perfect

·         Expresses something happened and the exact time is not important.

·         Also describes repetition of an activity before now. Example: We had four test so far this semester. || I have written my wife a letter every other day for the last two weeks. (p-36)

Present Perfect Progressive

·         It is used to indicate the duration of an activity that began in the past and continue in the present.

·         Uses since, for, all day etc.

·         Example: I have known Alex since he was child.(p-42)

Past Perfect

·         To express an activity that was completed before another time in the past.

·         If either before or after is used, the past perfect isn’t necessary because the relationship of the time is clear.

·         Example: Sam had left before Anna got there. (p-45)

Chapter 04
Future Time

Will and Be Going To

·         Be going is to expresses a prior plan. Example: I’m going to paint my bedroom tomorrow. (p-52)

·         Will is to expresses a willingness. Example: The phone is ringing and I will get it.

·         Will and be going to is not used in a time clause, but the present tense is used. Example: Bob will come soon, when Bob comes, we will see him.

Present Progressive Tenses and Simple Present to express future time.

·         The progressive tense may be used to express future time when the idea of a sentence concerns a planned event. Example: My wife has no appointment with a doctor. She is seeing Dr. North next Saturday.

·         The simple present also can be used to express future time in the sentence concerning events that are on definite schedule or timetable. Example: The museum opens at ten tomorrow morning. (p-57) || Only a few verb are used this way: e.g., open, close, begin.

Chapter 05
Adverb Clause of Time and Review of Verb Tenses

Adverb Clauses of Time: Form

·         An adverb clause is dependent clause, so must attach to an independent clause.

Chapter 06
Subject – Verb Agreement

Final s/es

·         It is added to a plural noun (pens) and to a simple present verb when the subject is singular noun or third person singular noun.

·         The pronunciation

After unvoiced consonant is /s/

After voiced consonant is /z/

After sh, ch, s, z, ge, dgeis /Iz/

Basic Subject – Verb Agreement

·         Every and each are always followed by singular noun. Even when there are two or more nouns connected by and, the verb is singular. Example: Every man, woman, and child needs love. (p88)

·         A gerund used as the subject of the sentence requires a singular verb. Example: Growing flower is my hobby. (p88)

Subject – Verb Agreement: Using Expressions of Quantity.

·         One of, each of every one of that followed by plural noun, the verb is singular.

·         None of is considered singular formality but plural in informal speaking and writing. Example: None of the boys are here. (p89)

·         If the number is a subject, it will be singular. And if a number of is an expression of a lot of, it’s followed by a plural nouns.

Some Irregularities

·         The United States is big.

Sears is a department store.

The News is interesting.

·         Field of study that end by –ics require a singular verb. Like: mathematics, physics.

·         Certain illness that end by –s are singular. Diabetes, measles, rabies.

·         Expression of time, money, and distance usually require a singular verb. Ten dollars is too much to pay. (p92)

·         Arithmetic expression require a singular verb.

Chapter 07
Nouns

Using noun as Modifiers

·         When a noun is used to as a modifiers, it is singular form. In: It’s vegetable soup. (p105)

·         When a noun uses as a modifier, it is combine with number expression, the noun is singular and a hyphen is used. Example: She has a five-years-old soon. (p105)

Chapter 08
Pronouns

Agreement with Collective Nouns (p136)

·         When a collective noun refers to single impersonal unit, a singular gender-neutral pronoun is used a singular form. Example: My family is large. It’s composed of nine members.

·         When a collective noun refers to a collection of various individuals, a plural nouns is used plural noun. Example: My family is large. They are always ready to help me. (p-136)

Using You, One and They as Impersonal Pronouns

·         One is much formal than you. Impersonal you, rather than one, is used more frequently in everyday English.

·         They is used an impersonal pronoun in spoken or very informal English to mean “some people or somebody”.

·         They has no stated antecedent.

·         Example: One should always be polite. || You always be polite. (p140)

Chapter 09
Modals, Part 1

Introductions

·         They generally expresses the speakers’ attitude.

·         Modal don’t take final –es even the subject is she, he or it.

·         Modal is followed by the simple form of verb.

·         Phrasal modals are common expressions whose meanings are similar to the of some of modal of the modal auxiliaries. Example: be able to similar to can and be going to is similar to will.

Lack of necessity and Prohibition: have to and must in the negative.

·         Do not have to = lack of necessity

Example: Tomorrow is holiday. We don’t have to go to beach. (P-158)

·         Must not = prohibition

Example: You must not look in the closet, your present is hidden here. (P-158)

Advisability: Ought to, Had Better.

·         Should and ought to have same meaning: They express advisability. The meaning ranges in strength from a suggestion (This is a good idea) to statement about responsibility or duty. Example: You should study harder.|| Drivers should obey the speed limit.

·         In meaning, had better is close to should / ought to, but had better is usually stronger. Example: The gas tank is almost empty.  We had better stop at the next service station.

·         Ought to is not commonly used in the negative.

Expectations: Be Supposed TO

·         It is to express the idea that someone expects something happen and it often expresses expectations about schedule events. Example: The game is supposed to begin at 10:00.

Chapter 10
Modals, Part 2

Chapter 11
The Passive

Forming Passive

·         Only transitive verbs are used in passive.

·         Usually the passive is used without a by-phrase. The passive is most frequently used when it is not known to know exactly who performs an action.

·         The by-phrase is included only if it is important to know who performs an action. Example: Life of Mississippi was written by Mark Twain.

·         The passive modal’s form is modal + be + past participle.

 

Indirect Object as Passive Object

·         When the direct object becomes the subject, to is usually kept in front of the indirect object.

Example: Someone gave an award to Mrs. Lee.

                An award was given to Mrs. Lee.

Stative Passive

·         It is used to describe an existing situation or state.

·         In Stative passive,

No action of taking place; action happened earlier.

There is no by-phrase

The past participle is as an adjective.

Example: The door is locked.

The Passive with Get

·         Get + Adjective

Get gives idea change – the idea of becoming, beginning to be, growing to be.

Example: I’m getting hungry, let’s eat soon. (P-232)

·         Get + Past Participle

The past participle functions as an adjective; it describes the subject.

The passive with get is common in spoken English, but is often not appropriate in formal writing.

Example: They are getting married next month. (P-232)

Participle Adjectives

·         The present participle serves an adjectives with an active meaning. The noun modifies performs an action. Example: It’s confusing problem. (P-235)

·         The past participle serves an adjective with a passive meaning. Example: They are confused students.

Chapter 12
Noun Clause

Question Words followed by Infinitives

·         Question word when, where, how, who, whom, whose, what, which and whether may be followed by an infinitive.

Example: I don’t know what I should do. => I don’t know what to do. (P-247)

Quoted Speech.

·         If the quoted sentences is divided by someone said, use a comma after the first part of the quote. Don’t capitalize the first word after someone said.

Example: “My brother,” she said, “is student.”

·         If she said comes between two quoted sentences, the second sentence begins with quotation mark and a capital letter.

Example: “My brother is a student,” she said. “He is attending a university.

·         If a question mark is used, no comma is used before she asked.

Example: “When will you be here?” she asked.

Using the Subjunctive in Noun Clause

·         It uses the simple form of a verb. It doesn’t have present, past, or future forms; it is neither singular nor plural. Sentence with subjunctive verb generally stress importance or urgency.

Example: The teacher demands that we be on time. positive (P-263)

                 I recommended that she not go to the concert. negative

                 It is important that they be told the truth. passive

·         Should is also possible after suggest and recommend. Example: I suggested that she see a doctor.

Using –Ever Words

·         The following –ever (whatever, whoever, whenever, whichever, however) give idea of “any”. Each pair of sentences in the examples has the same meaning.

Example: He always says whatever comes into his mind. (P-265)

Chapter 13
Adjective Clauses

Punctuating Adjective Clauses

·         No comma are used. The adjectives clause is necessary to identify which a person is meant. Example: The professor who teaches Chemistry 101 is an excellent lecturer.

·         Comma are used. The clause is not necessary to identify a person. We already know who he is: he has name. The clause simply gives additional information.

Example: Professor Wilson, Who teaches chemistry 101, is an excellent lecturer.

Reducing Adjective Clauses to Adjectives Phrase

·         Only adjective clause that has a subject pronoun –who, which, or that- are reduced to modifying adjective phrase.

Example: The girl who is sitting next to me is Maria. => The girl is sitting next to me is Maria.

·         If the adjective clause contains the be form of verb, omit the pronoun and the be form.

Example: the books that are on that shelf are mine. => The books on that shelf are mine.

Chapter 14
Gerunds and Infinitives Part 1

Introductions

·         A gerund is the –ing form of a verb used as noun.

·         A gerund is frequently used as the object of a preposition.

·         Negative form: not precedes a gerund.

·         Go is followed by gerund in certain idiomatic expressions to express, for the most part, recreational activities. Example: We went fishing yesterday. (P-303)

·         There are common verbs that are followed by infinitive. They are like: hope, plan, and promise, appear, agree, ask, and refuse. Etc.

·         Some verbs can be followed by either gerund or infinitive, in writing there are not differences of meaning. Example: It began to rain. = It began raining. The verbs are: begin, start, like, continue, hate, etc.

It + Infinitive; Gerund and Infinitives as Subject.

·         Often an infinitive phrase are used with it as the subject of sentence. The word it refers to and has same meaning as the infinitive phrase at the end of the sentence. Example: It’s difficult to learn a second language.

·         A gerund phrase is frequently used as the subject of a sentence, like: Learning a second language is difficult.

Chapter 15
Gerunds and Infinitives part 2

Infinitive of Purpose: In Order to

·         In order to is used to express purpose. It answers the question “Why” it’s like: He came here to study English. (P-326)

·         To express purpose, use to, not for, with a verb. He came here for studying English is incorrect.

·         For can be used to express purpose, but it is a preposition and is followed by a noun object. Like: I went to the store for some bread.

Using Infinitives with too and enough.

·         Too implies a negative result. Example: The box is too heavy for Bob tom lift. Imposible

·         Enough follows an adjective, usually enough precedes a noun.

Example: I’m strong enough to lift the box. (P-330)

                I have enough strength to lift the box.

Passive and Past Forms of Infinitives and Gerund.

·         The event expressed by a past infinitive or past gerund happened before the time of the main verb. Example: The rain seems to have stopped. || I appreciated having had the opportunity to meet the king. (P-331)

Using Gerund or Passive Infinitives Following Need

·         Usually an infinitive follows need, as in I need to borrow some money. (P-333)

·         In certain circumstances, gerund may follow need, in the case the gerund carries a passive meaning. Example: The house needs printing. = The house need to be printed. (P-333)

Using a Possessive to Modify a Gerund

·         In formal English, a possessive adjective is used to modify a gerund.

·         In informal English, the object form of a pronoun form of pronoun is frequently used.

Example: We came to class late. Mr. Lee complained about the fact.

Formal: Mr. Lee complained about our coming to class late.

Informal: Mr. Lee complained about us coming to class late.

·         In very formal English, a possessive noun is used to modify a gerund.

·         The possessive form is often not used in informal English.

Example: Formal:  Mr. Lee complained about Mary’s coming to class late.

              Informal: Mr. Lee complained about Mary coming to class late.